Circuitry of the Basal Ganglia:BG(The Basal Ganglia are a collection of nuclei that are found deep in the base of the fore brain. They are developed from the telencephalon, the same part of the developing nervous system that formed the cerebral cortex. Except the neurons of the Basal Ganglia didn’t migrate out to the expanding outer sphere of the developing telencephalon, rather the cells that formed the Basal Ganglia stayed close to the base of the, of the ventricular system.)
Sreams:
Major parts of basal ganglia:注：The ventral tegmental area provides a dopamine projection to the ventral part of the striatum that participates in the limbic processing string.注：1. Put:The putamen is all about moving the body. So the putamen is the principal recipient of the inputs form the frontal motor cortex and the parietal somatic sensory cortex. 2. Cd:The caudate nucleus received input from the frontal cortex, specifically the parts of the prefrontal cortex that sit just in front of the motor cortex. The caudate nucleus is also receiving input from the anterior part of the premotor cortex, which would include our frontal eye field. So, the caudate nucleus is concerned with movement of the eyes, and with the eyes also goes our mind. 3.Acc:The nucleus accumbens is receiving input from the ventromedial parts of the fore brain that are concerned with processing emotion or affect. So the nucleus accombands/ g is going to be involved with moving affect.注：1蓝色部分（The globus pallidus）;1-5-2(下)-The cingulate gyrus and other divisions of the prefrontal cortex.
Major inputs to the basal ganglia:注：黄色部分是indirect
问：(1)Which of the following structures is a component of the “striatum”?——putamen. (2)Which of the following structures is a component of the “pallidum”?——substantia nigra pars reticulata.
Fuction of basal ganglion circuitry:
Disinhibition:
The pathway:
Basal Ganglia Function In Normal and Abnormal Movement
Function:
Parkinsonism:
Huntington disease:
问：In idiopathic Parkinsonism, there is pathological difficulty initiating movement. Which of the following statements provides the best explanation of this difficulty?——There is too much activity in the internal segment of the globus pallidus and, therefore, too much inhibition of the ventral anterior/ventral lateral complex of the thalamus.
Modulation of movement by the cerebellum
overview of Cerebellum.
Function:
Major parts of cerebellum:注：(1) Spinocerebellum: It is the part of the cerebellum that is mostly concerned with movements of the arms and the legs. It is receiving input from the spinal cord. (2)Cerebrocerebellum: It is concerned with the skilled movements that we perform with our distal extremities, especially when there’s some kind of skill.(3)Vestibulocerebellum: This part of the cerebellum is going to have much to do with calibrating and governing the motor output from our vestibular nuclei.
Cerebellar Circuits：
Input:注：1. The spinal cord(spinal cerebellum):The pathway that serves the lower extremity involves a relay in the dorsal nucleus of Clarke, which is found in the thoracic segments of the spinal cord. The dorsal nucleus of Clarke grows an axon, that runs up the dorsal lateral white matter of the spinal cord and forms a tract that we call the dorsal spinal cerebellar tract. This is the major relay of proprioceptive signals from the lower extremities into the cerebellum. This pathway runs on the ipsilateral side of the cerebellum and the spinal cord. 2. The massive connection from cortex to pontine nuclei to cerebellum is mainly going into the lateral hemispheres, into that region that we call the cerebral cerebellum. 3. And then these vestibular inputs, that are being sent in some cases directly from the eighth nerve into the cerebellum. And others in a relay through the vestibular nuclei of the brain stem. These are being conveyed to the vestibular cerebellum, that flocculonodular lobe that’s tucked underneath the posterior part of the cerebellum.
Cerebellum cortex:
Output:
问：Which of the following events are critical for motor learning in the cerebellum?—activation of climbing fibers
Cerebellar Function In Normal and Abnormal Movement
Summarry of cerebellum organization:注：The cerebellum coordinates movements of the body. And it also seems to assist in coordinating movements of the mind.
Dysfunction：
Visceral motor system
Functional and Anatomical Divisions of the Visceral Motor System
Overview:
Function divisions:
CNS systems of visceral motor control:
Visceral motor elements:注：The sympathetic division is preparing the body for action.注：蓝色的部位——These are the preganglionic neurons that send their axons out from the spinal cord, to supply the ganglionic neurons, which in turn innervate the viscera.注：That connects the lateral horn of the thoracic core to the sympathetic truck, trunk, is the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.注：All of these neurotransmitter receptors in our visceral motor system are of the G protein coupled seven-transmembrane receptor family.
Central Integration of Visceral Sensory and Motor Signals
Parasympathetic efferents:
Summary：
Visceral afferent:
问：Suppose you are like me and you have great difficulty controlling your “nerves” when about to perform music (or dance, theatre, etc., whatever performance art form appeals to you). At such moments, what do you think is happening in your “central autonomic network”?——Activity is dramatically increasing in the neural networks that promote sympathetic visceral motor outflow.
Hypothalamus：
Overview: The hypothalamus is found in the ventral aspect of the diencephalon, the hypothalamus forms the walls of the third ventricle.
Control:注：(1)3-PN:There is another one called the arcuate nucleus and these nuclei are intimately related to the production of hormones in the anterior part of the pituitary gland. (2)2-SN: these are the nuclei that have the neurons that grow their axons through the infundibulum, that is, the stalk of the pituitary, and release hormones directly into the general circulation in the neurohypophysis or the posterior part of the pituitary gland. (3)1-MPN:This is a part of the hypothalamus that is involved in various aspects of coordinating reproduction, and sexual behavior. This medial pre-optic area is also involved in governing the release of urine in the process of micturition. (4)1-SN: This is a nucleus we’ll come back to when we talk about the regulation of sleep. The suprachiasmatic nucleus is the master clock of the human body. (5)3-Dorspmedial N+3-VN:These two nuclei seem to be involved in some other dimensions of reproductive behavior, and even parenting behavior. (6)1-LPN+3-LN: They are involved in really a variety of functions that pertain to attention and arousal. And they seem to be in a position to modulate the way the cortex responds to other kinds of inputs.
Horner’s syndrome: If there were a stroke in the lateral tegmentum of the brain stem. Here is a representation of the medulla. We potentially could have a Horner syndrome in conjunction with signs and symptoms that would help you localize the lesion to this particular level.
问：Which of the following statements DOES NOT characterize a function of hypothalamic nuclei?Suppose you are examining a patient who presents with left-sided Horner’s syndrome. You recall learning about this condition in Medical Neuroscience, and you remember that damage of descending projections from the hypothalamus to the sympathetic preganglionic neurons in the intermediolateral cell column may be involved. What would you expect to see upon physical examination?
Micturition：
Neural control:注：(1)The sympathetic innervation to the bladder is going to promote bladder filling, so it’s going to relax the bladder wall. It’s going to contract the internal sphincter muscle, and together that will allow the bladder to fill. (2)The parasympathetic system on the other hand is going to promote the emptying of the bladder. Activation of parasympathetic inputs to the detrusor muscle will cause that muscle to contract and the bladder to void.
注：The ventral tegmental area provides a dopamine projection to the ventral part of the striatum that participates in the limbic processing string.
注：1. Put:The putamen is all about moving the body. So the putamen is the principal recipient of the inputs form the frontal motor cortex and the parietal somatic sensory cortex. 2. Cd:The caudate nucleus received input from the frontal cortex, specifically the parts of the prefrontal cortex that sit just in front of the motor cortex. The caudate nucleus is also receiving input from the anterior part of the premotor cortex, which would include our frontal eye field. So, the caudate nucleus is concerned with movement of the eyes, and with the eyes also goes our mind. 3.Acc:The nucleus accumbens is receiving input from the ventromedial parts of the fore brain that are concerned with processing emotion or affect. So the nucleus accombands/ g is going to be involved with moving affect.
注：1蓝色部分（The globus pallidus）;1-5-2(下)-The cingulate gyrus and other divisions of the prefrontal cortex.
注：黄色部分是indirect
注：(1) Spinocerebellum: It is the part of the cerebellum that is mostly concerned with movements of the arms and the legs. It is receiving input from the spinal cord. (2)Cerebrocerebellum: It is concerned with the skilled movements that we perform with our distal extremities, especially when there’s some kind of skill.(3)Vestibulocerebellum: This part of the cerebellum is going to have much to do with calibrating and governing the motor output from our vestibular nuclei.
注：1. The spinal cord(spinal cerebellum):The pathway that serves the lower extremity involves a relay in the dorsal nucleus of Clarke, which is found in the thoracic segments of the spinal cord. The dorsal nucleus of Clarke grows an axon, that runs up the dorsal lateral white matter of the spinal cord and forms a tract that we call the dorsal spinal cerebellar tract. This is the major relay of proprioceptive signals from the lower extremities into the cerebellum. This pathway runs on the ipsilateral side of the cerebellum and the spinal cord. 2. The massive connection from cortex to pontine nuclei to cerebellum is mainly going into the lateral hemispheres, into that region that we call the cerebral cerebellum. 3. And then these vestibular inputs, that are being sent in some cases directly from the eighth nerve into the cerebellum. And others in a relay through the vestibular nuclei of the brain stem. These are being conveyed to the vestibular cerebellum, that flocculonodular lobe that’s tucked underneath the posterior part of the cerebellum.
注：The cerebellum coordinates movements of the body. And it also seems to assist in coordinating movements of the mind.
注：The sympathetic division is preparing the body for action.
注：蓝色的部位——These are the preganglionic neurons that send their axons out from the spinal cord, to supply the ganglionic neurons, which in turn innervate the viscera.
注：That connects the lateral horn of the thoracic core to the sympathetic truck, trunk, is the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
注：All of these neurotransmitter receptors in our visceral motor system are of the G protein coupled seven-transmembrane receptor family.
注：(1)3-PN:There is another one called the arcuate nucleus and these nuclei are intimately related to the production of hormones in the anterior part of the pituitary gland. (2)2-SN: these are the nuclei that have the neurons that grow their axons through the infundibulum, that is, the stalk of the pituitary, and release hormones directly into the general circulation in the neurohypophysis or the posterior part of the pituitary gland. (3)1-MPN:This is a part of the hypothalamus that is involved in various aspects of coordinating reproduction, and sexual behavior. This medial pre-optic area is also involved in governing the release of urine in the process of micturition. (4)1-SN: This is a nucleus we’ll come back to when we talk about the regulation of sleep. The suprachiasmatic nucleus is the master clock of the human body. (5)3-Dorspmedial N+3-VN:These two nuclei seem to be involved in some other dimensions of reproductive behavior, and even parenting behavior. (6)1-LPN+3-LN: They are involved in really a variety of functions that pertain to attention and arousal. And they seem to be in a position to modulate the way the cortex responds to other kinds of inputs.
Suppose you are examining a patient who presents with left-sided Horner’s syndrome. You recall learning about this condition in Medical Neuroscience, and you remember that damage of descending projections from the hypothalamus to the sympathetic preganglionic neurons in the intermediolateral cell column may be involved. What would you expect to see upon physical examination?
注：(1)The sympathetic innervation to the bladder is going to promote bladder filling, so it’s going to relax the bladder wall. It’s going to contract the internal sphincter muscle, and together that will allow the bladder to fill. (2)The parasympathetic system on the other hand is going to promote the emptying of the bladder. Activation of parasympathetic inputs to the detrusor muscle will cause that muscle to contract and the bladder to void.
